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No question is too complex. No problem is too big. We are the experts in materials testing and failure analysis. |
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Ceramics and Composites: XRD is used on a routine basis to characterize ceramic components. The technique has been used to characterize mullite in refractory bricks, types of silicon nitride and various polymorphs of silicon carbide. |
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Thin Films: Thin films deposited by various methods show varying degrees of anisotropy. This information relating preferred crystallite orientation (or texture) can be quantified and evaluated by XRD methods. With certain thin film devices, the direction and degree of preferred orientation of the film in relation to the substrate can influence the functionality of the device. |
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Biomaterials: Materials used in bone or dental implants contain various types of inorganic and organic materials. They include calcium sulfates in different hydration states and structural modifications, hydroxylapatite, polyethylene and many others. The nature and degree of crystallinity of these materials have a profound impact on the behavior of the implants. XRD is an indispensable tool to identify and characterize their nature. Figure 1 shows diffraction patterns for a highly crystalline and totally amorphous hydroxylapatite. |
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Batteries: Lead acid batteries contain different lead compounds. The types and amounts of these compounds vary with the usage. It is often critical to characterize and quantify these inorganic crystalline compounds. The phases quantified include lead compounds usually present in fresh or cycled lead acid batteries and they include lead oxides, tri- and tetra-basic lead sulfates and lead carbonates. |
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Pharmaceuticals: X-ray powder diffraction, in combination with the whole pattern fitting Rietveld method, has been used successfully to characterize and quantify several pharmaceutical compounds including ibuprofen, cyclophosphamide and many others. The technique has also been used to quantify various polymorphic forms of carbamazepine in a multi -component mixtures to with in 1-2 weight percent. |
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Asbestos: Asbestos is a natural mineral fiber that can pose a significant health hazard. Once airborne, the fibers can become lodged in lungs. There are seven regulated types of asbestos minerals including chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite and tremolite. Their identity requires XRD along with microscopy (Optical microscope and TEM). |
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Polymers: Many polymers have some order and can be identified and characterized by XRD. These polymers are, at least in part, crystalline or pseudo-crystalline with partially ordered structures. The percent crystallinity can be quantified with XRD. This crystalline/amorphous ratio is related to processing methods and is of much importance in polymer industry. Figure 2 shows XRD patterns for polyethylene with three different degrees of crystallinity. |
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Soils and Clays: It is often important to characterize soils and clays for their mineralogy. For example, in cosmetic or pharmaceutical area, it is very critical to determine the presence of bentonite or kaolinite in their formulations. In foundation engineering or hazardous impoundment areas, it is essential to know the presence of swelling clay minerals (such as bentonite or montmorillonite) or reactive minerals such as pyrite (FeS2) or gypsum (CaSO4) in a soil. XRD can be used to determine the mineralogy of soils and clays. |
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The type of materials analyzed by TM include: |